Viscose
Definition
Viscose is the common name given to fabric and textiles processed from the cellulose fibres of wood pulp. The name viscose is derived from the chemically-based viscous solution from which the fibres are created. Viscose is currently the most commonly manufactured type of MMCF (Man-Made Cellulosic Fibre).
Production
The origins of viscose began in the search for an economical alternative to silk, and its first patented example was known as Chardonnet silk, named after French industrialist Hilaire de Chardonnet, who is said to have discovered the process in the 1890s while working with his colleague Louis Pasteur.1 Although initially found to be highly flammable, they soon developed a safe variation, and by 1905 it was commercially produced as viscose or Rayon by textiles firm Courtaulds. In the first half of the 20th century, Courtaulds went on to establish the USA as the centre of viscose manufacturing. Today, China is the largest producer of viscose, accounting for around 65% of global production, with forests in Brazil, USA, Canada, Sweden and South Africa accounting for the majority of wood pulp production.2
Felled trees are the main source of raw materials for viscose production. Image: Olso
To produce viscose, raw organic material (usually wood) is pulped, dissolved, aged and treated through various chemical processes that break down molecules and regenerate the original natural fibres into a new, purified cellulose. Similar to polyester, viscose production pushes this processed material through a number of tiny holes known as a spinneret to create fine fibres, which are then coagulated, prior to being spun into yarn.
MMCFs such as viscose account for the third largest share of global textile production after polyester and cotton, and their production has doubled since 1990.3 Viscose is often referred to as a semi-synthetic material, which can create confusion around its provenance. While frequently labelled as sustainable or natural (its main ingredients are often derived from fast-growing trees and plants such as pine, eucalyptus and bamboo), the FSC (Forestry Stewardship Council) suggests that more than 50% of global production is still being sourced from uncertified forests that are are vulnerable to deforestation and illegal logging.4
Processed viscose fibres, ready for spinning into yarn. Image: Olso
As a renewable textile requiring less water to cultivate than cotton, viscose has real potential as a sustainable material. However, this is critically tempered by its dependency on and use of several highly toxic chemicals during manufacturing, including carbon disulphide, caustic soda, sulphuric acid and sodium hydroxide, of which several are particularly corrosive, impacting both workers and local ecosystems.
When not properly managed, carbon disulphide can create a number of health risks including neurological and vascular conditions,5 and often escapes the confines of processing facilities due to its high volatility as a gas. According to newspaper The Guardian, a 2017 report by sustainability campaigning organisation Changing Markets Foundation, found ‘visible and highly odorous pollution’ on sites in India owned by the world’s largest viscose manufacturer, while independent laboratory tests revealed carbon disulphide air pollution levels were 125 times greater than those recommended by the World Health Organisation.6 The report also identified evidence of viscose producers in China, Indonesia and India contaminating local lakes and ecosystems from the dumping of untreated wastewater.
Several non-profit organisations are seeking to address this damaging aspect of viscose production, including the Textile Exchange, who established the MMCF 2030 Vision to promote sustainable production practices and identify key targets for the industry, including protection of primary forests, natural ecosystem restoration, zero waste discharge and closed-loop chemical recovery systems (recycling of chemical waste and emissions).
Other more sustainable MMCF alternatives to viscose do exist, although they are often more expensive to produce, and therefore account for a smaller proportion of the market. Examples such as Lyocell and Modal both replace carbon disulphide with non-toxic solvents and employ closed-loop chemical recovery systems, while other manufacturers remove forest-based feedstocks entirely, replacing virgin wood pulp with post-industrial waste or used cotton.
Used cotton clothing bales for viscose recycling, Circulose®, Sweden. Photograph: © 2025 Circulose AB.
Through their work with manufacturers and brands, the CanopyStyle initiative by forest supply chain campaigners Canopy, aims to reduce the role of deforestation in the growing viscose market by encouraging industry commitments to best practice certifications such as FSC and Best Available Techniques (BAT) emissions standards. Global textile initiative Fashion for Good have also indicated that manufacturers of as much as 50% of global viscose production are now committed to ‘responsible’ production methods.
In Use
Viscose currently accounts for about 5% of global textiles production with the three largest global producers Sateri, Lenzing and Birla manufacturing over 40% of this total.7 Viscose accounts for around 75% of all MMCF production, with an annual global output of around 5.2 million tonnes.
As a plant-based cellulose material, viscose is similar to cotton, though generally lighter, more absorbent and less strong. Like silk, it is often selected for its soft or drapable properties where a garment’s durability is not paramount - suiting items such as dresses and blouses - but viscose is also used in disposable medical and hygiene products such as bandages and tampons.
Being biobased, viscose reduces the environmental problems of plastic microfibres and landfill that synthetic fabrics such as polyester create, but the production of viscose continues to make a significant contribution to the deforestation of primary forests, creating a focus for a number of industry campaigns by environmental organisations.
End-of-life
Like most textiles, there is currently a very limited infrastructure for fibre-to-fibre textile recycling of viscose, aside from generic downcycling (into, for example, low-grade industrial fibres). According to global poverty charity Oxfam, the UK discards around 13 million items of clothing every week, of which approximately 300,000 tonnes is annually disposed of in household waste, ending in landfill or incineration.8
Fashion For Good’s 2020 report on the future sustainability of MMCF materials highlighted the huge potential for used cellulose-based natural fibre clothing (such as cotton) to be recycled and regenerated into new MMCF materials. Given the very low fibre-to-fibre recycling rates in the garment industry, the report suggests that if just 25% of existing cotton and rayon textile waste could be converted into regenerated MMCF, the need for virgin timber in viscose production would be eradicated.9
In conventional viscose processes, much of the raw timber may go to waste. However, using cotton as the source material the production creates little to no waste. As Kathleen Rademan, innovation platform director at Fashion for Good explains to The Guardian, ‘it makes more sense to try to valorise the resources we already have via textile-to-textile recycling’.10
Technically, as a natural fibre, viscose will also biodegrade more rapidly than synthetic fibres, although studies into its qualities as a fully compostable material are limited. However, branded viscose or MMCFs such as TENCEL do have compostability certifications, which claim compostability in industrial, home and marine conditions within 60 days.11
As with most recycling and circularity initiatives, there are significant challenges to scaling up infrastructure and capacity, but many private manufacturers are already innovating in this space. Leading viscose manufacturer Lenzing produces Refibra™ from approximately 30% recycled cotton, alongside their ECOVERO™ fibre, which has a high recovery rate for chemicals used in processing. Award-winning Swedish company Circulose (formally Renewcell) manufactures the eponymous Circulose® from 100% recycled textiles, while Finnish manufacturer Spinnova claims to use 99% less water than traditional viscose to create fibres that are also 100% recyclable.
Sheets of CIRCULOSE® ready for manufacturing into new textile fibres. Photograph: © 2025 Circulose AB.
Certification
FSC certified products mean chain-of-custody certifications can be given for each stage of processing and ensuring FSC certified wood products are kept separate from uncertified products.
PEFC is the world's largest forest certification system, for more than 300 million hectares of forest and includes chain-of-custody certifications that track material from forest to final product.
EU Ecolabel is a voluntary scheme managed by the European Commission and is the only formal certification system for viscose production covering a range of criteria from sustainable agriculture and forestry, to the design and specification of products.
CanopyStyle is a verification framework designed to enable sustainable wood sourcing for viscose production. Over 65 brands work within the organisation's audit system, addressing the traceability of raw materials and protecting the rights of communities and workers.
Compostable TUV certified OK Compost Home specification includes lower composting periods and temperatures than industrial compostable materials and has been adapted for use by several MMCF and lyocell producers, although garments made with such fibres are regularly manufactured with blended synthetic fibres or elastics.